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Plastics Technology, 2007-02-27, New Specialty Polymers Improve Fuel-Cell Economics
...s and engineering-polymer suppliers are already bearing fruit. Their research is coming up with new ion-conducting plastic films for use in Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells. These novel membr...

Kunststoffe international, An Impact Way beyond its Small Market Share
Although fluoroplastics only make up a very small part of the overall plastics market, they are an indispensable component of many applications. These materials play a central role in today’s megatrends of digitalization, clean-energy generation and modern mobility concepts. In fluoroplastics, the hydrogen atoms of the main carbon chains are completely or partially replaced by fluorine atoms. Because these carbon-to-fluorine bonds are very stable, fluoroplastics exhibit a special combination of ...

Kunststoffe international, Drivers of Electromobility
The transformation from the combustion to the electric engine entails several imponderabilities for the plastics industry. In part, electric drives have completely different material requirements which are becoming specifically evident with the increasing use of appropriate vehicles. The following article presents an overview of the most important changes. With the move towards electromobility, the automotive industry is facing a radical change. In the transition period, manufacturers will stron...

Kunststoffe international, Present in a Multitude of Trends
Lightweight construction, functionality and design are characteristic of material development in all areas of ‧application for PC compounds, composites and films. The range of materials has enormous opportunities when it comes to the mobility of the future, lightweight structural construction with continuous fiber-reinforced composites, 5G technology and medical technology. During the course of 2018, the high demand for polycarbonate (PC) had already slowed down considerably in comparison with ...

Kunststoffe international, “Plastics Play a Key Role in Lithium-Ion Batteries”
Lithium-ion batteries are the basis of most mobile devices. Auto manufacturers also rely on them in their electric vehicles. The importance they have now acquired for our society is clearly shown by the award of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry 2019 to Dr Akira Yoshino, Dr Michael S. Whittingham, and Dr John B. Goodenough for their contributions to the development of lithium-ion batteries. Kunststoffe interviewed Dr Yoshino about the key role plastics play in these batteries and how the range probl...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Bonding of Plastics
Bonding of Plastics Applications, Training, Trends Otto Diedrich Hennemann, Bremen/Germany Bonding is a joining process that enables high added value to be created. For confidence in the bonding of plastics to be boosted, there is a need to develop adhesives even further, among other things. Plastics Processors will also have to train skilled employees in the future. This will allow the possible applications of this joining technology to be fully exploited in fields with a promising future...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Defect-Free Microstructures
Defect-Free Microstructures Forming of Textured Surfaces - an Application for Servoelectric Injection Moulding Machines Christian Gornik, Harald Bleier and Willibald Warta, Kottingbrunn/Austria The use of surfaces as functional elements, and not only the increasing degree of miniaturisation, is contributing to the growing importance of micromoulding. To produce trouble-free micro moulded parts, a precisely working injection moulding machine and a special process management are important fa...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Electronic Components and Displays: Intrinsically Conductive Polymers
... printed circuit boards and as the counter electrode in polymer-based capacitors. Polymer electronics and polymeric light-emitting diodes (PLED) are being predicted as growth areas for the future. Stephan Kirchmeyer Lutz Brassat Polymers are traditionally employed as insulators in electronics: PVC, for instance, is a typical insulating material and for this reason is employed as a cable jacket for copper wire. In addition to the insulating polymers, there are also electrically conductive polym...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Epoxy Resins (EP)
...y. Raw material costs have somewhat stabilized, and there is increasing confidence that we have or will soon pass the bottom of the business cycle. By the second half of 2002, we expect to see a resurgence in growth around the world. World consumption of epoxy resins was about 1 million tonnes in 2000. Most of it (35 %) is processed in Asia. In Europe, EP consumption stagnated in the last three years at about 250 000 tonnes p. a. (Table 1). Coatings and electronics One of the largest uses of...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Filter Cups Made from Polyamide: Transparency for Water Filters
...ivable without plastics. The transparent filter cups in water filters made by Carbonit Filtertechnik are produced from Grilamid, a thermoplastic polyamide 12 that absorbs virtually no water and is approved for food and drinking-water contact applications. Peter Westerbarkey Engineering plastics play a key role in professional filter systems. They allow the greatest possible freedom of design in manufacture, meet all legislative requirements governing use in contact with food and drinking water ...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP)
Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP) Achim Hofmann, Kelsterbach Challenges facing suppliers of modern, high-grade, functional components include progressive miniaturisation combined with increased moulded part complexity due to function integration, ever-decreasing life-cycles, and in some cases huge production numbers. LCPs offer an excellent combination of properties that meets the ever-increasing demands placed on the properties of the materials to be used. Since their introduction at the begi...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Nano-replication: Concentration of Information
Injection Moulding Concentration of Information Nano-replication. In the optimisation of optical storage media, miniaturisation will continue to be a key aspect of development. A recent research project examined the influence of different masters and moulding compounds on the replication accuracy of nanostructures. Increasing the storage density of optical media such as CDs is not possible without additional miniaturisation of the surface structures – the so-called 'pits'. In the sear...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Nanocomposites - En Route to Application
Nanocomposites - En Route to Application Rolf Mülhaupt, Freiburg/Germany, Thomas Engelhardt and Norbert Schall, Moosburg/Germany New families of nanofillers and nanocomposites are opening up unexploited performance potential in plastics, rubber and dispersions. Just small percentages of nanofillers are sufficient to afford major changes of the property profiles of polymeric and effect materials. The range of applications extends from new structural materials through to a variety of functiona...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS)
Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS) Benny Mermans, Kallo-Beveren/Belgium With the majority of its applications in the fields of automotive and electrical/electronics, polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) has since become established as a popular high-performance material. Although the market for PPS declined last year by around 15% in global terms due to the weakness of the economy, it nevertheless managed to stabilise in Europe. In view of the ever-advancing miniaturisation, the mounting demands being mad...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Quality Assurance: Comparison of Thermal Stability Measurement Processes for PVC
Quality Assurance: Comparison of Thermal Stability Measurement Processes for PVC Thermal stability is one of the most important criteria for the processing and application of PVC. There are four different methods used to measure it. An interlaboratory test was carried out to compare different test equipment and their precision using systematically determined data. A simple method of determining the thermal stability of polyvinylchloride (PVC) is to measure the amount of hydrogen chloride evo...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Radiation Technology: Grafting as an Upgrading Technique for Polymer Materials
Further Processing and Finishing Grafting as an Upgrading Technique for Polymer Materials Radiation Technology. Different molecules form chemical bonds when exposed to radiation. This effect is used to produce custom-made plastics properties and to lend the base material additional characteristics. Joachim Tatje Grafting is a proven method for improving plants. The quality improvement is achieved by transferring buds or scions from useful plants to so-called shoots as carriers. Also in plasti...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Swiss Network: Nanoreplication in a Network
Special Nanoreplication in a Network Swiss Network. A joint project which pooled the competence of research institutes and industrial partners created a technology base for nanoreplication in Switzerland. By using moulding tools with lateral structure sizes of below 100nm, the partners conducted replication tests with different moulding processes and measured these on a centralised basis. The partners are now in a position to better exploit this know-how in the production of nano-structured par...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Trends in Automotive Headlamps
...er, Michael Geprägs and Rüdiger Bluhm, Ludwigshafen/Germany, Gerd Ickes, Alzenau/Germany Highly developed lighting systems increasingly require materials with properties that can satisfy modern design requirements. This opens up potential applications for plastics, particularly engineering and high-temperature thermoplastics. Modern developments in automotive headlamp systems are characterised by partly contradictory demands for increased service reliability, reduced fuel consumption thanks to ...

Kunststoffe international, 2005-11-21, Wear Protection: The Plastication Unit as a Focus of Conflict
Wear Protection: The Plastication Unit as a Focus of Conflict Wear processes in the plastication unit interact in complex ways. To provide effective protection, it is necessary to consider the entire system. Patrick Margraf In the wake of process developments in the plastics industry, plastication technology has also showed steady progress. Though often a black box for users, the plastication unit is extremely important. It is the key component of the process. Adequate wear protection is g...

Kunststoffe international, 2006-01-09, Plasma Processes: The Functionalisation of Plastic Surfaces
Engineering Plastics The Functionalisation of Plastic Surfaces Plasma Processes. The plasma technology offers a wide variety of possibilities for functionalising surfaces to comply with the relevant specifications. Not only is the process more environmentally friendly than other methods, it also yields very high quality. This article describes the basic principles for a better understanding of this technology for industrial application. Ernst Schmachtenberg Andreas Hegenbart Through the applica...

Kunststoffe international, 2006-05-23, Innovative Potential: Additives Now and in the Future
Additives Additives Now and in the Future Innovative Potential. The use of additives to extend the range of properties offered by plastics has made a vital contribution to the success of these materials. Additives are important components in plastics formulations, which assist their processing and ensure a long service life. Additives modify, influence and safeguard service properties. They also achieve new effects and functions that open up considerable innovative potential. Rudolf Pfaendner...

Kunststoffe international, 2006-05-23, Phyllosilicates: Targeted Modification of Properties
Special. Targeted Modification of Properties. Phyllosilicates. Unusually high thermal stability of compounds results from a combination of (polyamide+polypropylene) blends with organically modified phyllosilicates (organoclays) obtained via the extrusion process. The observed effects can be traced to a nanoparticulate distribution of the phyllosilicates and their orientation at the phase boundary between the polyamide and polypropylene. Stefan Reinemann et.al. Reports on the development of poly...

Kunststoffe international, 2006-08-06, Optically Perfect: PVD-coated Plastication Screws
Injection Moulding PVD-coated Plastication Screws Optically Perfect. One way of satisfying the high quality-specifications on plastic parts for optical applications is to coat the plastication screw. Trials with a CrAlON coating confirm that the lower melt adhesion considerably reduces the number of reject parts. Walter Michaeli et al In recent years, ever more optical components have been manufactured from plastics. Polymers are gaining greater market shares for the production of spectacles o...

Kunststoffe international, 2006-09-27, Heat Resistance: Miniature Electronic Components Produced from PEEK
Special Miniature Electronic Components Produced from PEEK Heat Resistance. As a result of the ban on lead-containing solders, processing conditions in the solder bath method have become far more extreme, pushing conventionally used materials to their performance limits. For this reason, the high-performance polymer PEEK, with its excellent thermal, electrical and mechanical properties, is being increasingly used for miniature electronic components. Steffen Germer The relentless miniaturisati...

Kunststoffe international, 2007-05-14, Off the Reel
Off the Reel Printed Electronic Circuits With organic electronics, an exciting new technology has emerged. For example, printed RFID tags represent a practically fraud-proof method for product identification. Application areas range from cost-effective theft prevention up to complex electronic product codes (EPC). Henning Rost Very soon, printed electronics will open up new markets and applications in the most varied ways. In the past, the implementation of first products frequently seemed h...

Kunststoffe international, 2007-06-18, Expertise at the Micro-Level
...hnology is forecast to enjoy continued strong growth. Christine Neuy Josefine Zucker An extract from the on-line encyclopaedia Wikipedia: "Micro-technology is technology with features near one millimetre (0.1-1000μm). The greatest application field for micro-technology is the production of integrated circuits (IC), without which modern computer technology would not have been possible. When integration of mechanical, optical or biochemical components is the focus of attention in additi...

Kunststoffe international, 2007-07-18, Artificial Nutrition from Beverage Bottles
Artificial Nutrition from Beverage Bottles PET Packaging Plastics containers are making inroads into the pharmaceutical and medical technology sectors as packaging solutions – including for sensitive applications. A joint project has shown that stretch blow molded PET bottles, which are already used for beverages, are suitable as primary packaging for artificial nutrition solutions. Leslie Bauer, Paula Fraga García, Erich Wintermantel, Martin Schlögl Certain illnesses give rise to deficiency...

Kunststoffe international, 2008-04-14, Controlling Discharge
Controlling Discharge Static Eliminators Electrostatic charging may cause problems in the production of plastics and plastic semi-finished products. A new generation of ionizers meters the charge in an object, and then discharges it in a precise and reliable way. Robert Ruthenberg In everyday life, you typically do not realize electrostatic charging, unless it discharges. For instance, you get a wee electric shock when touching the doorknob. Electrostatic charging may however be a real nui...

Kunststoffe international, 2009-01-26, Preventing Theft of Ideas
As strongly as the brazen imitation of industrial production is already established, still equally lacking for many manufacturers of original products is any awareness of the real damage from counterfeiters’ workshops and gray import sources. Figure 1 shows that the value of all goods seized in Germany during the last four years has nearly tripled. The implications of concern to us of imitations are visible around us daily [1]. There are athletics shoes that look confusingly similar to a well-kn...

Kunststoffe international, 2009-10-14, Focus on High-Tech
Whether it’s electrical or electronics, construction, engineering, packaging, chemical process technology, IT, automobiles or aircraft, practically all branches of industry can benefit from the innovation potential of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Their market growth therefore is very rapid. At present it is in the region of 25 % per annum. In ten years’ time the world market for CNTs is predicted to have a turnover about USD 2 billion. Bayer MaterialScience has therefore recently begun construction ...

Kunststoffe international, 2009-10-14, For the Third Industrial Revolution
Twenty years ago, generative production techniques started to conquer design departments all over the globe in the form of rapid prototyping. Despite this, the chief problems inherent in these techniques have still not been (fully) solved. Although the inferior-quality surfaces are now of a somewhat better quality without finishing work, they still cannot be regarded as good. Changes in the material – especially on the surface – and also anisotropy are still the order of the day. The range of ma...

Kunststoffe international, 2010-08-19, Biopolymers as a Source of Energy
Biopolymers are defined as plastics that are made from natural (renewable) raw materials and/or are biodegradable (Fig. 1) [1]. In order to achieve maximum sustainability, cascade use and CO2 reduction costs through intelligent disposal of biopolymers are increasingly being discussed in association with the so-called “end of life”options for products. On top of that there are a number of special provisions for biopolymers in packaging that for example allow a time limited exemption to the take b...

Kunststoffe international, 2010-09-24, Integrating Product Decoration into a Process Chain
...ded as one of the key technologies of the 21st century. The standard techniques that are used in plastics processing are often old friends. In general, surface enhancement measures improve the value of plastics products. Particular fields of application are often only possible at all thanks to these methods. An example is the printing of polyolefins. Without plasma or corona surface treatment, firmly bonded decoration of the material is difficult to realize. Before any technology can become esta...

Kunststoffe international, 2011-09-23, Resource Efficient Lightweight Design for Mass Production
...creasing, the demand for lightweight components is constantly on the rise, and the pressure on costs from competitors from the Far East is growing. This calls for novel types of lightweight design, in order to provide for economic large-scale production in integrated processes. To show just one example of the potential of hybrid lightweight design, this article will present an application of local reinforcement by continuous fibers, and will also provide information on a new tape laying process ...

Kunststoffe international, 2012-07-23, Antimicrobial Finishes for Surfaces
Plastics in the form of films, injection molded parts and composite structures are widely used in medical technology. However, because their use involves the crossing of natural biological barriers (e.g., needles, catheters and implants) – there is always the risk that germs and pathogens will be transferred to the patient, despite all the care taken during production. Surface contamination can come about from airborne germs, poor hand hygiene or even just unavoidable contact with the patient’s ...

Kunststoffe international, 2012-07-23, Invisible Barrier Features
...day, the shelves and display refrigerators are filled with packaged food. Its shelf life continues to increase steadily, and the packaging is not only an important marketing instrument at the point of sale but also provides the customer with information about all the ingredients. This applies especially to highly developed regions, the so called “saturated markets”, but the development can also be seen in emerging economies. Reasons for this include demographic changes such as urbanization and p...

Kunststoffe international, 2012-11-26, Lighter in the Air, in the Wind and on the Road
The sharp rise in demand for carbon fiber reinforced composites (Fig. 1) predicted for the years ahead is essentially driven by current developments in the transport sector. To satisfy the requirements of EU legislation to cut average carbon dioxide emissions per car maker to 130 g/km by the year 2015, the automotive industry is increasingly resorting to materials that offer high potential for use in lightweight construction, especially carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRPs). As rolling fricti...

Kunststoffe international, 2012-11-26, Plastics Technology and Electromobility
The development of electromobility is influenced by a variety of trends. Ever stricter consumption and emission regulations, the growing need for mobility and limited crude oil resources are leading to the increased use of vehicles with alternative drive technologies [1]. In 2011, Daimler put a purely electrically driven vehicle into the showrooms in the form of the Smart electric drive. The same year, General Motors, with the Chevrolet Volt (USA) and the Opel Ampera (Europe), launched its first...

Kunststoffe international, 2013-05-16, Is the Future of Plastics “Green”?
The use of biomass, particularly for the production of bioenergy, places a considerable burden on existing agricultural land (Title figure) and forests. An attractive alternative option is direct chemical conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) without plant photosynthesis and biomass growth and therefore without competing with food production. Carbon dioxide gas is available in large quantities as a waste gas from power plants. Since a considerable amount of energy is released during combustion, the...

Kunststoffe international, 2013-06-19, Radiation Shielding
Shielding against what is commonly called EMI, electromagnetic interference, has become a very interesting area of application for flexible, conductive and transparent plastic films. By EMI we mean a negative influence on the function of electrical devices, equipment spaces and facilities in the form of interference stemming from magnetic and electric fields. Effective shielding can protect devices from magnetic, electric and electromagnetic fields, or vice-versa: the surroundings can be protect...

Kunststoffe international, 2014-04-14, Surface Analysis: Polymers Under the Chemical Magnifying Glass
To obtain a detailed look at and into the chemical composition of polymers, it is essential to select the most appropriate analytical method. With the aid of X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToFSIMS) properties can be selectively identified, localized and quantified. Many important properties, such as adhesion, friction, oxidation and optical behavior, are determined by a polymer’s chemical composition. Furthermore, these properties are d...

Kunststoffe international, 2015-04-20, Packaging and Storage of Biopharmaceutical Products
Biopharmaceutical medications on peptide and protein base cannot be administered orally, because, due to their similarity to food, they will be degraded inefficiently at the digestive system. So normally they are given as injectable solved agents or intravenous drip. A big task is to find suitable materials for packaging. The majority of new drug developments is coming from the biopharmaceutical sector. For this the market grows in the double digit region and is predicted to increase further ove...

Kunststoffe international, 2016-07-20, Tracking down the Causes
...ained phenomenon occurring in interior and exterior automotive components has long troubled auto manufacturers and suppliers: light-colored components discolor when stored for any length of time in the dark. But then in the daylight, this discoloration disappears again within a couple of days. Extensive tests and special analysis have now solved this mystery. The automotive industry is increasingly moving towards individual, demand-led production and supply of its vehicles. This poses enormous ...

Kunststoffe international, 2016-09-23, Tracking down the Causes
In a joint project, automotive manufacturers, suppliers, and testing institutes set out to explain the reversible discoloration of plastics, paints, and polyurethane foams. A test developed in this project, which simply and reliably detects the potential for dark-time discoloration, could be helpful in incoming goods inspection and production monitoring. As already described in Part 1, the project participants concentrated primarily on reversible discoloration of components for automotive interi...

Kunststoffe international, 2016-10-17, Polyamide 6 and 66 (PA6 and PA66)
With the growth of the major consumer markets, polyamide production is also growing. PA6 and PA66 predominate; the share of PA specialties is still small, despite relatively high growth rates. The biggest producer and consumer of PA6 was China. A key driver of polyamide growth is the global increase in automotive production. The consolidation and relocation of polyamide supply chains are progressing rapidly. Global production of polyamide has been growing since 2013. In 2015, it was over 7 milli...

Kunststoffe international, 2017-02-23, Organoclay Imparts Scratch Resistance
Scratches and marring limit the potential applications of thermoplastics, which is why many processors are searching for approaches to protecting surfaces from such damage. To address this issue, various thermoplastics have been combined with additives based on modified clay and then had their properties compared. Many thermoplastics are not resistant to scratching and marring, which limits their potential applications (Title figure). For the purposes of the present article, "scratches" are dama...

Kunststoffe international, 2017-05-22, More than Hot Air
Many thermoplastic materials are very difficult to glue. Activation with atmospheric plasma significantly increases the adhesive force of the joint in just one process step. The search for the cause harbors some surprises. The effect of plasma treatment on a surface is of a thermal, chemical, and micromechanical nature, and depends on the chosen process parameters. Factors that play an important role include the working distance, type of process gas, excitation power level, and processing speed...

Kunststoffe international, 2017-07-19, Disquiet before the Storm
...Dia(hr)log conference held by Akro-Plastic GmbH was devoted precisely to this topic. In some respects, much may still seem a long way off but in others it may already be too late. New compounds were also announced at the conference, such as an expansion of the engineering plastics portfolio. How strongly and how quickly will the disruptive changes in auto manufacture impact on the plastics industry? This question lay at the heart of the 11th Akro Dia(hr)log conference held on May 9 and 10 in Nie...

Kunststoffe international, 2017-09-20, New Plastic Housing Material for e-Power Units under the Hood
A low-warpage, flame-retardant PBT-ASA material has been developed for the housings of a battery management unit and two cell monitoring units. Both assemblies have recently been used in the lithium-ion battery systems of a small compact car. The material has low warpage and is flame-retardant. It also offers high chemical resistance, low emissions, and high toughness and stiffness. The electromobility megatrend is opening up many new applications for engineering thermoplastics. This is certainl...

Kunststoffe international, 2018-03-09, Efficient Heat Dissipation
...ies and their robustness, silicone-based thermal interface materials prove indispensable in this field. Most experts agree: tomorrow’s cars will be electric. In 2016, the number of electric vehicles on the world’s roads already exceeded two million, up 58 % on the prior year. The Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, has calculated that new electric car registrations in China, the country with the largest electric fleet, have risen six-fold between 2014 an...

Kunststoffe international, 2018-03-09, Synergies from the Far East
The change in drive-train technology from the conventional combustion engine to the electric drive poses a big challenge for car manufacturers and suppliers alike. Engineering plastics have versatile properties that offer a wide potential for applications in electric vehicles. The transformation in car drive-train technology that is underway is being accelerated by political policies. From 2020, all newly approved cars in the EU will be required to achieve an average emission target of 95 g CO2...

Kunststoffe international, 2018-07-17, Almost Inseparable
...or light and high-performance parts, the interface between metals and polymers is often the weak point of hybrid components. Now, however, nanoporous adhesive layers can be used to create permanent, reliable and practical joints. The direct application of a polymer onto a metal component, without the use of additional adhesives and a resource-intensive pretreatment of the surface, is desirable from a technical, economic and ecological perspective. The Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technolog...

Kunststoffe international, 2018-09-19, A UFO Lands in the Home
... are not generally synonymous with aesthetic design. However, for the softliQ water-softening unit from Grünbeck, a new look meant unimagined market success. The trick was a luminescent green ring of a specially matched compound. In personal discussions in Höchstädt, Germany, the product developers and compounders explained how color and transparency can be cost-effectively combined. When Markus Rosenzweig receives visitors, they often cast an interested glance at his utility room next to the e...

Kunststoffe international, 2019-09-17, In the Fast Lane with Plastics
... the first cars of this type were delivered in the middle of this year. For this car, the engineers use plastic panels for the vehicle’s body. The large-sized body panels are thermoformed by the plastics-processing company Parat in close collaboration with the plastic sheet manufacturer Senoplast. What began in 2015 as the brainchild of Prof. Dr. Günther Schuh to develop an affordable electric city car has now been officially delivered as of May 2019. Everyone is talking about the e.GO Life vehi...

Kunststoffe international, 2019-12-18, Electromobility and a Concept Vehicle
.... One major focus was on electromobility. Many manufacturers presented new materials that had either been developed specially for electric vehicles or are suited for this purpose. Hereby, electric vehicle batteries stood at the center of attention in many cases. They still represent one of the most problematic components. This not only lies in their still insufficient capacity and the associated limited range, but also with the connected safety risks. Protect Batteries Sufficiently In general, r...